Frankincense

Name and Identification

Russian name: лада́н (ladan), олибан (oliban) Latin: Boswellia sacra, B. carterii, B. serrata, B. papyrifera — a genus in the family Burseraceae Arabic: al-lubān (لبان) — literally “milk,” referring to the colour of the resin Greek: libanōtos → Latin thus / incensum (“that which is burned”) English: frankincense — from Old French franc encens, “pure/noble incense”

How to identify the plant: A small tree or large shrub (3–8 m), with characteristically papery, peeling bark of grey-green or pale-white colour — reminiscent of birch bark, but in a tropical context. Leaves are pinnate, clustered at the tips of branches. Flowers are small, white or pale pink. The key diagnostic feature is a milky, aromatic sap that exudes when the bark is cut, hardening into golden-amber droplets known as “tears.” The tree grows on dry, rocky slopes — often literally out of bare rock, an appearance that made an enduring impression on ancient travellers.

Geography and Range

Commercially significant species are concentrated in what is known as the “Frankincense Belt”:

• B. sacra / B. carterii — Oman, Yemen, the northern Horn of Africa (Somalia, Ethiopia)
• B. papyrifera — Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan
• B. serrata — the Indian subcontinent (Ayurveda)
• B. frereana — Somalia (“maydi,” particularly prized)

Historical and Economic Significance

Frankincense is one of humanity’s first global trade commodities. Its economic history spans at least three millennia.

The Incense Route was a branching trade network connecting the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Egypt, Persia, India, and the Mediterranean. At its height (1st century BCE – 2nd century CE), Pliny the Elder estimated annual volumes at 3,000 tonnes per year from South Arabia alone. Control over this route underpinned the power of the Nabataean Kingdom (with its capital at Petra) and later of Palmyra.

Egypt purchased frankincense from the inhabitants of the land of Punt (modern-day Somalia/Eritrea) and cultivated Boswellia trees in temple gardens. The famous expedition of Queen Hatshepsut (~1470 BCE) was partly dedicated to bringing back live trees. The resin was used in mummification, cosmetics, and ritual fumigation — kyphi, a ceremonial compound containing frankincense, was burned daily in the temple.

Rome was the largest consumer: frankincense was burned at household lararia, state sacrifices, and aristocratic funerals. According to Pliny, Nero burned more frankincense at the funeral of Poppaea than Arabia produced in an entire year.

Economic decline: With the spread of Christianity (which initially rejected incense burning as “pagan”), and later with the rise of Islam and the shift of trade routes, the monopoly of the South Arabian kingdoms collapsed. Today the frankincense trade faces a new crisis — over-tapping of trees, drought, and infestation by the beetle Oligotoma threaten the collapse of B. papyrifera populations in Ethiopia.

Use Across Traditions

Abrahamic religions: In Judaism, frankincense was an ingredient in ketoret — the sacred incense burned in the Jerusalem Temple (Exodus 30:34). In Christianity, it became one of the three gifts of the Magi (gold, frankincense, myrrh) — symbolising the divinity of Christ. In Catholic and Orthodox liturgy it remains in continuous use to this day. Islam knows bakhoor — aromatic blends based on frankincense, traditional in Arab households.

Ayurveda and Indian tradition: Shallaki (B. serrata) is one of Ayurveda’s key anti-inflammatory agents, applied in cases of arthritis, asthma, and intestinal disorders. The resin is known as salai guggul.

Traditional Chinese Medicine: Ruxiang (乳香) — used in ointments and internal formulas to improve blood circulation, and for joint pain and injuries.

Ethiopian tradition: In Ethiopia’s Coptic Church, frankincense (etan) is an inseparable part of worship and domestic life. Local communities use B. papyrifera as a remedy for malaria, headaches, and during childbirth.

Somali tradition: Maydi frankincense is chewed like gum — considered beneficial for the stomach and teeth, and believed to strengthen memory.

Folklore and Mythology

• In Arab tradition, frankincense trees are guarded by jinn — which is why only the ritually and morally “pure” may make incisions in the bark. Harvesters observed fasts and abstained from sexual contact during the collection period.
• A Greek myth tells of Leucothea (or Myrrha in another version): a girl pursued by her father was transformed by the gods into a tree, from which fragrant tears flow — resin as crystallised grief, sorrow made into a gift.
• In Yemeni tradition, frankincense smoke is believed to repel evil spirits and protect children from the evil eye — newborns were fumigated immediately after birth.
• In medieval Europe it was thought that frankincense neutralised poisons and “corrected the air” during plague — hence the burning of incense in churches during epidemics.

Political Dimensions

• Control over production has historically been a tool of political power. Kings of the Sabaean and Himyarite kingdoms imposed heavy taxes on harvesters; the Ptolemies attempted to monopolise supplies through Egypt.
• In modern Oman, B. sacra is a national symbol and cultural heritage — the state sponsors conservation programmes for trees in the Dhofar region. The Frankincense Route is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List (2000).
• In Ethiopia, the conflict between commercial over-exploitation of frankincense groves and the rights of local communities is an active political issue. NGOs and academic groups are pushing for quotas on tapping.
• In the context of contemporary spirituality (New Age), global demand for frankincense oil has created economic pressure on the region — questions of “sustainable” consumption have become part of the wellness industry’s political agenda.

Healing Properties: Evidence Base

Active compounds — boswellic acids, chiefly AKBA (acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid).

Confirmed and studied effects:

Antimicrobial — the essential oil is active against a range of pathogens

Anti-inflammatory — inhibits 5-lipoxygenase (unlike NSAIDs, does not damage the stomach lining)

Anti-arthritic — clinical trials of B. serrata for knee osteoarthritis have shown significant pain reduction

Bronchodilatory — reduces inflammation in bronchial asthma

Neuroprotective — frankincense smoke contains incensole acetate, which in animal studies reduced anxiety and activated TRPV3 channels in the brain (giving rise to the hypothesis of a psychoactive effect of frankincense smoke during meditation)

Antiproliferative — AKBA is being studied as a potential agent in oncology (in vitro and in vivo research)